Also known as cobalamin, is a water-soluble vitamin that has many important functions throughout the body, including keeping nerves healthy, supporting the production of DNA and red blood cells, and maintaining normal brain function
Access this article Similar content being viewed by others Abbreviations AD: Alzheimers disease ADHD: Attention deficit/hyperactivity disorder ALDH: Aldehyde dehydrogenase BDNF: Brain-derived neurotropic factor CaMKII: Calcium/calmodulin-dependent kinase II cAMP: Cyclic 3,5 adenine-monophosphate CDK5: Cyclin-dependent kinase 5 CK1: Casein kinase 1 CK2: Casein kinase 2 COMT: Catechol- O -methyl transferase CREB: cAMP Response element-binding protein CSF: Cerebral spinal fluid DAG: Diacylglycerol DARPP-32: cAMP-Regulated phosphoprotein 32-kDa DAT: Dopamine transporter DJ-1: PARK7 (Parkinson disease protein 7) DOPAC: 3,4-Dihydroxyphenylacetic acid DOPAL: 3,4-Dihydroxyphenylaldehyde ELKs: Glutamine, leucine, lysine, and serine-rich protein ERK: Extracellular-signal regulated kinases FDA: US Food and Drug Administration GABA: -Amino butyric acid GIRK: G protein inwardly rectifying potassium channel GPCR: G protein-coupled receptor GRK: G protein-coupled receptor kinase GSK3: Glycogen synthase kinase 3 GSTM2: Glutathione transferase GTP: Guanosine triphosphate HVA: Homovanillic acid HD: Huntingtons disease HTT: Huntingtin gene IGF: Insulin growth factor IP3: Inositol trisphosphate JNK: c-Jun kinase L-DOPA: Levodopa LB: Lewy bodies LRRK2: Leucine-rich repeat kinase 2 MAPK: Mitogen-activated protein kinase MAPT: Microtubule-associated protein MAT: Monoamine transporter MAO: Monoamine oxidase mTORC2: mTOR complex 2 NAc: Nucleus accumbens NET: Norepinephrine transporter NMDA: Glutamate N -methyl-d-aspartate Parkin: PRKN PD: Parkinsons disease PDPK1: Phosphatidylinositol-dependent kinase 1 PIP2: Phosphatidylinositol-2-phosphate PIP3: Phosphatidylinositol-3-phosphate PKA: Protein kinase A PKC: Protein kinase C PLC: Phospholipase C PP1: Protein phosphatase 1 PP2A: Protein phosphatase 2A PP2B: Protein phosphatase 2B RGS: Regulators of G protein signaling RIM: Rab3a-interacting molecule ROS: Reactive oxygen species RTK: Receptor tyrosine kinase SNCA: -Synuclein STEP: Striatal-enriched tyrosine phosphatase SZ: Schizophrenia TAAR: Trace amine-associated receptors VMAT2: Vesicular monoamine transporter VTA: Ventral tegmental area References Agnati LF, Zoli M, Strmberg I, Fuxe K (1995) Intercellular communication in the brain: wiring versus volume transmission
BPC-157 and tissue repair: Molecular pathways and clinical implications
At temperatures above 20C for weeks or months, even lyophilized peptides can experience measurable degradation
Below, our expert team explores the implications of this decision and what it means for the future of college sports
